Chapter Seven: The Demon King of the Sixth Day
Under the scheming of the Ikko-ikki and their allies, the rebels initially fought while retreating, luring the Oda army across the river and into various encampments. Taking advantage of the night, they then breached the levees and unleashed a torrent of water. The Oda army, having fought all day, was in the midst of setting up camp to rest when suddenly, a series of thunderous roars erupted, and a surging muddy current came rushing in, causing widespread panic and a frantic scramble for escape. At this moment, the Ikko-ikki had already stealthily approached the Oda army's encampment in small groups, utilizing the terrain to hide in the mountains and forests, continuously firing guns and arrows at the enemy. As a result, the Oda army's formation became even more chaotic, and numerous bodies fell to the ground...
After the retreat from Kanazaki, the various powerful clans in the Kinai region that originally belonged to Nobunaga began to waver. Many areas erupted in uprisings, and for a considerable period, Nobunaga could only control a few scattered castles in southern Omi, while the forces of the uprisings gradually united. However, after the Battle of Anegawa, the momentum of the Azai and Asakura allied forces moving south slowed down, and these uprising forces, having lost their external support, were gradually defeated by Nobunaga one by one. Seeing this situation, Motoyasu realized it was time to clarify his position and express his stance, thus completely abandoning Ashikaga Yoshiaki and turning to contact Nobunaga.
In the sixth year of Eiroku (1563), a large-scale Ikko-Ikki uprising broke out in Mikawa Province, lasting for a full six months and delivering a heavy blow to the feudal rule of the Tokugawa clan. This event is regarded as the greatest crisis in the life of Tokugawa Ieyasu. During this incident, many vassals of the Tokugawa clan, who adhered to the Jodo Shinshu sect, did not hesitate to betray their lord in order to join the ranks of the uprising. Seven years later, an even more terrifying uprising erupted in the territory of Oda Nobunaga.
When dawn arrived, the reports of losses from each army were compiled and presented to Nobunaga. He finally came to the sober realization that this battle could no longer continue. If he remained stubbornly intent on advancing towards the Yogen Temple, he would only sink deeper into the quagmire of Nagashima, and ultimately, the entire army would likely be annihilated. Thus, Nobunaga reluctantly issued the order to retreat. This move had long been anticipated by the enemy, and the rebels had already ambushed the retreating path of the Oda army. The sound of gunfire echoed all around, while arrows fell like rain upon the demoralized Oda troops.
At that time, he could not have anticipated that he would gain the favor of Nobunaga, allowing him to follow closely by his side for an extended period and witness a significant historical transformation. He could not have imagined that this Japanese daimyo, who had never before encountered Catholicism, would harbor a great curiosity for this distant religion, showing no signs of exclusion whatsoever.
Hearing that the castle of Zoho had surrendered without a fight, Azai Nagamasa was greatly angered and exceptionally alarmed. He immediately gathered his troops and on May 6, led his army out of Koguchi Castle, re-entering the Azai River basin, preparing to attack Yokoyama Castle, which was defended by Kinoshita Hideyoshi. Taking the initiative, Kinoshita Hideyoshi led over a hundred cavalry to stealthily exit Yokoyama Castle, and soon joined forces with the defected troops of Hori Hidemura, Higuchi Naofusa, and others, totaling around five to six hundred men, to confront the Azai army, which was nearly ten times their number, in the Kinpu area. Due to Hideyoshi's valiant efforts, Azai Nagamasa was forced to retreat back to Koguchi Castle, allowing Oda Nobunaga to temporarily begin his first campaign against Nagashima without any concerns from the rear.
For both the residents of Long Island and the soldiers of the Oda army, this marks the beginning of a long nightmare
On May 12, Nobunaga led a grand army towards Ise Nagashima. He divided his forces into three routes: Sakuma Nobumori, Asai Shin'ya, Yamada Sanzaemon, Hasegawa Tanba no Kami, Wada Nobusuke, and Nakajima Bungo no Kami advanced from Nakasu Pass; Shibata Katsuie, Ichihashi Nagatoshi, Ujiie Bokuzen, Iga Heizaemon, Inaba Ittetsu, Tsukamoto Kodaizen, Noda Mitsuharu, Marumo Nagatomo, and Iinuma Kanpei advanced from Oda Pass. The three routes moved south towards Genshoji. Nobunaga himself stationed at Tsushima (present-day Tsushima City, Aichi Prefecture) to personally command the operations.
In the heat of battle, Oda's vanguard, the artillery general Sasaki Narimasa, was severely wounded, and Nomura Echū no Kami was killed in action. Although Mōri Hideyoshi and Kanematsu Yoshiro managed to slay the valiant general Nagasue Shinshichirō under the command of the enemy's Takano no Kami, they were unable to claim his head due to the ensuing chaos. This prelude to the "Battle of Ishiyama" was intense and evenly matched, with neither side gaining the upper hand.
Among the families mentioned above, nearly half are descended from the Fujiwara clan, with all five of the "Five Generations" originating from the Fujiwara branch known as the "Northern House." Yamashina Kigen is a collateral branch of the Fujiwara clan and, in terms of family rank, belongs to the "Yurin Family"
A soldier lifted a woman's skullcap, wishing to glimpse her appearance; this scene was precisely witnessed by Nobunaga, who immediately ordered the soldier to be executed on the spot
This uprising is different from those in the past, as the Hongan-ji Temple in Ishiyama, although recognized as the head temple of the Ikkō sect, has historically aligned itself with feudal lords and generally did not support the revolts of its followers. However, after the onset of the Ishiyama Battle, the high priest publicly called upon believers throughout Japan to rise against Nobunaga's "tyranny" and to fight to defend the temple. Nagashima was located in the flank of Oda Nobunaga's stronghold in Owari, and the Nagashima uprising caused even greater panic and fear in Nobunaga than the Hongan-ji head temple located far away in the Kinai region. Consequently, he immediately stockpiled provisions and mobilized troops in preparation for a large-scale punitive campaign.
For this reason, Yan Ji praised Nobunaga extensively in his diary, and at the court, he continuously worked to bridge the increasingly apparent rift between the court and Nobunaga for the latter's benefit.
The three armies suffered severe losses, particularly the rear troops following the route of Daitian Pass, who faced the most tragic fate. The fierce general Chōta Katsutaka was injured, and Ujiie Bokuzen, one of the "Three Heroes of Nishi Mino," was actually killed by the rebel forces. Thus, the first battle of Nagashima ended with Nobunaga's complete defeat.
Therefore, Sakuma Nobumori and others advised Nobunaga against burning Mount Hiei and Enryaku-ji. After encountering a setback, they dared not speak further. Nobunaga then ordered the blockade of all descending routes and set a great fire, commencing a brutal encirclement battle. All twenty-one shrines below the main hall were burned down, and approximately three to four thousand people, including monks and believers, regardless of gender or age, were brutally slaughtered
At that time, the Japanese nobility had a clear hierarchy in terms of family lineage, and those with insufficient family status could not hold high-ranking official positions. The main distinctions were as follows: the "Five Regent Families" such as the Imperial Guards and the Eagle family, whose descendants could attain the highest position of regent or kampaku (an important official role responsible for government affairs on behalf of the emperor; when the emperor is young, this role is referred to as regent, and when the emperor assumes power, it is called kampaku, meaning that all matters must be reported to this official); the "Nine Distinguished Families" such as the Sanjo and Kiku families, whose descendants could reach the rank of Minister of State, either Shō or Jun-Ichii; the "Three Minister Families" such as the Shōin and Sanjo-Nishi families, whose descendants could achieve the rank of Daijin at the level of Shō-Sanmi; the numerous "Bureau of Imperial Guards" families such as the Kawahira and Shigenoi, whose descendants could attain the rank of Jun-Yonmi as Imperial Guards General; and the many "Famous Families" such as the Kōshūji and Banri no Komichi, whose descendants could reach the rank of Jun-Gomi as attendants.
The Missionary's Perspective on Nobunaga
Oda Hikonoshin Nobuaki, the seventh son of Oda Nobuhide, was granted the small castle of Okazaki located in the western part of Owari Province, near the Ise border, from which Nagashima could be seen from a height. In September of the first year of Genki (1570), as the Oda army engaged in battle with the Ishiyama Hongan-ji, the high priest called upon all followers of the Ikkō sect throughout Japan to unite and attack the "Buddhist enemy" Nobunaga, threatening excommunication for any who disobeyed. The Yōshō-ji temple, upon receiving the decree, wasted no time and immediately took action. Thus, in November of that year, the Ikkō uprising at Nagashima commenced, advancing eastward to besiege Okazaki Castle. At that time, Nobunaga was still at Mount Hiei, confronting the allied forces of Asai and Asakura, and was unable to dispatch reinforcements. Consequently, the castle was captured, and Oda Nobuaki ascended to the main keep, pitifully committing seppuku.
Due to this agreement, the Asai clan was forced to retreat to the northeastern corner of Lake Biwa. Such a significant contraction of territory clearly indicated that they no longer had any intention of competing with the Oda clan to the south. Consequently, the isolated Sawayama Castle would inevitably become a target for Nobunaga. Based on Kinoshita Kanemasa's pessimistic mindset, coupled with the repeated persuasion and inducements from Oda's side, including Hideyoshi, he ultimately opened the castle gates and submitted to Nobunaga. Nobunaga then appointed Niwa Nagahide as the acting lord of Sawayama Castle.
Nobunaga knew that he would eventually have to engage in battle with the detestable Ikko sect monks, but he was accustomed to diplomacy before warfare, striving to resolve issues through diplomatic means. Thus, he sent a letter to Shōnin Shōnyū, requesting tribute money as military funds for the Oda army. In truth, Nobunaga did not care about this small amount of military funding; his aim was to threaten Hongan-ji, compelling it to withdraw its support for the remnants of the Miyoshi and Rokaku clans, as well as for the Asakura and Asai daimyōs. He wanted Shōnin Shōnyū to immediately declare: "Will you support me, or will you stand against me?" However, Shōnin Shōnyū resolutely refused without any room for negotiation.
To speak frankly, Nobunaga's decision to engage in battle with the Hongan-ji at this time was poorly timed, as the Asakura and Asai coalition was right behind him. Launching a major offensive in the Settsu region at this moment would stretch the Oda forces thin and leave them overwhelmed. A moment of impatience and anger led Nobunaga to make a misstep, and of course, he could not have anticipated that this war would drag on for such an extended period
Mount Hiei is known as a "sacred mountain" of Buddhism, with numerous temples scattered throughout, among which Enryaku-ji is the most famous. It serves as the headquarters of the Tendai sect of Japanese Buddhism, founded by the missionary master Saichō in the early 9th century, boasting a long and rich history. Although its military power cannot be compared to that of Hongan-ji, its religious sanctity is even greater—after all, it has a history of over six hundred years, which cannot be compared to the emerging Jōdo Shinshū. Aware of Oda Nobunaga's deployment of the Asai and Asakura allied forces at Mount Hiei, he immediately proposed conditions: if Enryaku-ji agreed to join his side and expel the Asai and Asakura armies, he would return the mountain gate territory (temple property) that had previously been seized by the Ōmi daimyō. He also threatened that if they did not comply, "I will burn all temples, including the main hall and the twenty-one shrines, to ashes."
Certainly, during that era, more people were opponents of Nobunaga's military actions, believing that the burning of Enryaku-ji marked the beginning of his tyrannical rule. Thereafter, Nobunaga was referred to as the "Demon King of the Sixth Heaven" (the ruler of the sixth heaven in Buddhist mythology, who is said to be solely opposed to the Buddha and employs various means to obstruct people from escaping the realm of desire and attaining liberation). Additionally, his previous frequent interactions with Catholic missionaries to acquire weapons and supplies from the Southern Barbarians led to the perception that he embraced Catholic doctrine and sought to eradicate Japan's traditional religion—Buddhism.
The forces of Asai and Asakura, having defeated Senkō, quickly captured Usuyama Castle, then advanced rapidly, setting fire to the stables in Ōtsu, Matsumoto, and other locations. On the 21st, they reached the vicinity of Kyoto, specifically the Daigo and Yamashina areas. On the 24th, the Oda army set out again from Kyoto to confront the Asai and Asakura coalition. The coalition had established defenses in areas such as Hōbō, Aoyama, and Gokasayama within Mount Hiei, preparing for battle.
Nobunaga was quite emotional; when he was happy, as Freud said, he often engaged in lively conversations with the lowly. However, when things did not go his way, he would erupt in fury towards his subordinates and even his retainers, sometimes resorting to physical violence. Consequently, his retainers were filled with fear, especially the high-ranking officials. It was one thing to be scolded by their lord, but what if they were struck on the head with a folding fan, hit on the shoulder with the hilt of a sword, whipped in the face with a riding crop, or even kicked to the ground? How could they hold their heads high in front of their peers after such humiliation?
Returning to the description of Nobunaga by Froissart, he later wrote in a letter to the Jesuits: "He is the second son of His Highness, who rules two-thirds of Owari Province (referring to Oda Nobuhide), and was thirty-seven years old at the time of the Battle of Okehazama. This man is tall and thin, with sparse hair (compared to Europeans, Asians naturally have sparser hair), and speaks very quickly"
In the second year of the Genki era (1571), in the month of February, the significant northern town of Sawasan Castle finally submitted to the feet of Oda Nobunaga. The truce agreement between the Oda clan and the Asai and Asakura clans, signed in early December of the previous year under the mediation of Shogun Yoshiteru and the court, transferred vast lands surrounding Sawasan Castle to Nobunaga. This led the castle lord, Isano Kazumasa, to sorrowfully ponder: had he truly been abandoned by his lord?
Mori was a high-ranking minister of the Oda clan. Mori Katsuchika was known for his bravery and martial prowess, and was praised by Nobunaga as "the foremost warrior in the realm" for his efforts in repelling the Takeda army's invasion of Kōyaguchi in eastern Mino. The death of Mori Katsuchika was a significant blow to the Oda forces, forcing Nobunaga to abandon the siege of the castles of Noda and Fukushima, and to disengage from contact with the forces of Hongan-ji. He hurriedly retreated to Kyoto, with generals such as Shibata Katsuie and Wada Yoshimasa covering the rear.
At the moment when Nobunaga was in dire straits, the "great villain" Matsunaga Hisahide suddenly appeared and said, "I have always had a close relationship with Shinanomori, please allow me to persuade him to open the city gates." With no other options, Nobunaga had no choice but to comply with Hisahide's request. Strangely enough, Hisahide, who usually had a rebellious nature, did not play any tricks this time; he truly went to Kyuubokudani Castle to persuade Motokata, who then opened the gates wide, allowing the Oda army to pass through. It can be said that his great benefactors were Motokata and Hisahide.
At this time, the alliance of Asai and Asakura did not possess the strength to engage in another decisive battle with Nobunaga. They harassed the surroundings, setting fire to places such as Shukugaku-ji, Ichijo-ji, and Matsuzaki-ji near Kyoto. Nobunaga's request for a decisive battle at a chosen location was met with refusal. The two sides faced each other until November 25, when several thousand troops from the Oda army stealthily seized the Kataguchi, cutting off the retreat route of the allied forces back to Echizen. On the morning of the 26th, the Asakura generals, including Asakura Kagekyo and Maenami Kagetaka, turned back to Kataguchi in an attempt to reclaim the route.
In August of that year, news suddenly arrived from Omi: "Lord Shinanomori of the rotten wood is willing to act as our internal support and launch a joint attack on the Shimura Castle." Nobunaga was overjoyed upon hearing this report and immediately set out from Gifu, rushing towards the southern region.
Not far to the southeast of Noda Castle lies the Hongan-ji Temple. Although the Hongan-ji has not yet engaged in formal battle with the Oda forces, it has secretly supported Noda Castle politically and economically, which greatly infuriated Nobunaga. It is said that the monks of the Ikko sect are not prohibited from marriage; the prominent monk Shōnin of Hongan-ji had formed a marital alliance with the Rokaku clan in the third year of Kōji (1557) and reached a peace agreement with the Asakura clan in the ninth year of Eiroku (1566). Under such circumstances, it is quite normal for Shōnin to wish to oppose Nobunaga.
Although they came with great momentum, the outcome was tragic. At this time, the strength of the Ikko-Ikki in Nagashima was different from when they attacked Komikawa Castle, as Hongan-ji anticipated that Nobunaga would not overlook the nearby Nagashima Hongen-ji and that a fierce battle of attack and defense would inevitably erupt. Therefore, at the beginning of the year, they dispatched the experienced monk officials, Nakama Yoshikatsu and Yoshinari, to lead more Ikko followers secretly into the Nagashima area. At this point, the Ikko-Ikki in Nagashima had ample personnel and weapons, and with unified command, Nobunaga, unaware of the enemy's situation, recklessly advanced, leading to a predictable outcome.
However, the Long Island region is crisscrossed by rivers and dotted with numerous small islands, making it very difficult for the army to launch a comprehensive offensive. To eliminate the Ikko-Ikki forces on Long Island, it is essential to mobilize a large number of warships and organize a flexible and mobile naval force. For this reason, although Nobunaga was deeply saddened and extremely angry about the death of his brother Nobuoki, he refrained from acting on his emotions and prepared for a full six months before dispatching troops to Long Island in May of the second year of Genki (1571)
The Nagashima area is located in the northeastern part of Ise Province, adjacent to Owari, and is a river island at the confluence of the Kiso Three Rivers (Kiso River, Nagara River, and Ibi River). These three rivers converge here and flow into Ise Bay. Around the mid-15th century, Master Rennyo, the son of the head priest of Hongan-ji, came to this place to preach and established a temple of the Jodo Shinshu sect, naming it "Gensho-ji"
Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in September of the 11th year of Eiroku (1568). In the following year (1569), he pacified Ise in October. Merely six months later, in April 1570, Azai Nagamasa suddenly tore up the alliance and launched a surprise attack on the Oda forces advancing into Echizen. The Battle of Anegawa erupted in June.
Before encountering Catholicism, Nobunaga himself did not have a clear faith; however, most Japanese people at that time practiced a combination of Buddhism and Shinto, and Nobunaga was no exception. Before and after the Battle of Okehazama, he visited Atsuta Shrine and its branch shrines to pray. He built Masahide Temple in memory of the loyal elder Masahide Hirate, inviting the renowned Zen monk Seki Hiko to serve as the abbot, and sought Seki Hiko's guidance in naming the new main castle "Sakifu." It would be inaccurate to label Nobunaga as a thorough atheist, but it is indeed a fact that he did not possess a clear and steadfast faith.
"That is mere boasting, empty talk." The monks of Enryaku-ji completely underestimated Nobunaga's decisiveness. They believed that Mount Hiei was the sacred mountain that protected the nation, and as long as Japan existed, the sacred mountain would not collapse. Enryaku-ji was a renowned Buddhist temple, blessed and protected by all the deities and Buddhas. Did Nobunaga not fear divine retribution if he dared to act recklessly?
After the disastrous defeat at Nagashino, Oda Nobunaga retreated to Gifu Castle to assess the defeated troops. He discovered that, although he had not encountered the main forces of the Ikkō-ikki, his own losses were even greater than those suffered at the Battle of Azukizaka. Though he felt unwilling to accept this outcome, he was unable to organize a second campaign against Nagashino in a short period of time. Thus, he had no choice but to temporarily halt large-scale military operations, reorganize his forces, and restore morale.
In the eyes of General Ashikaga Yoshiteru, Nobunaga was a force that must be defeated, as his ambitions were too great, completely disregarding the shogun and refusing to assist him in restoring the former glory of the Muromachi shogunate. However, where is the former glory of the Muromachi shogunate? The era of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu is long gone, and even if one were to restore the situation to that of Ashikaga Yoshimasa, prior to the "Onin and Bunmei" disturbances, the so-called shogun would merely be a nominal overlord supported by the various regional lords. Most of the lords gathered in Kyoto, pointing fingers at the shogunate's governance, forming factions and opposing each other, while the role of the shogun was merely to maintain peace and balance of power. In any case, as long as the shogun's own wealth and power were not threatened, it mattered little who served as the shikken or the high officials.
Nobunaga then left Kyoto to pursue the remaining enemies in the western province of Settsu. Shortly after his return, on October 14 and 17, he met with Yoshitsugu twice. The following year, in the 12th year of Eiroku (1569), from February 7 to April 21, within a brief span of just over two months, the two met as many as twenty-seven times. Through Yoshitsugu, Nobunaga met with several court nobles, including the Middle Counselor Yabushita Yorifusa, the Left Minor Counselor Hino Terusuke, and the Councilor Jimon-in Mototaka, thereby establishing connections within the court and leaving a favorable impression on the Emperor and the nobility.
The Shimabara Rebellion
At the time when the Oda army was confronting the allied forces of Asai and Asakura near Mount Hiei, the remnants of the Miyoshi took the opportunity to repair the castles of Noda and Fukushima. Hongan-ji also vigorously incited its disciples across Omi to rise in rebellion, leading to a surge of conflict in the Kinai region. The Oda generals Niwa Nagahide and Kinoshita Hideyoshi were dispatched to suppress the unrest, exhausting themselves in the process. However, the most terrifying news was yet to come. Nobunaga completed the peace negotiations and returned to Gifu at the end of the year, only to receive the news that his younger brother Oda Nobuoki had been besieged by the Ikko-ikki at Nagashima, resulting in his defeat and subsequent suicide.
In Ashikaga Yoshiteru's mind, the "peaceful and prosperous era" of the shogunate probably ended here. Although this person was not incompetent, he truly lacked any political foresight
In the eleventh year of Eiroku (1568), Nobunaga entered Kyoto in September, and the first meeting with Yoshiaki Ashikaga took place on October 6 at Hōkyō-ji Temple in Kyoto. At that time, Yoshiaki had just moved from Gifu's Ritsumei Temple, so Yantake arranged for Yoshiaki and Nobunaga to meet the Emperor, instructing them on the attire they should wear and the etiquette that must be observed during the audience.
These letters from Froissart were later compiled into a book titled "History of Japan." Additionally, the Spanish merchant Abira Silon, who arrived in Japan only after Nobunaga's death, wrote a book called "Chronicle of the Kingdom of Japan," in which he described Nobunaga as follows: "He had a good physique, was among the taller figures among the Japanese nobility, and had a well-proportioned body. He possessed a pair of bright, piercing eyes, a high nose, a wheat-colored complexion, sparse hair, and an extremely resilient demeanor"
The missionary was pondering how to impart the knowledge that the Earth is a sphere to Nobunaga, but Nobunaga interrupted him, nodding and saying, "I see, that makes sense." He then pointed to the globe and asked, "Where is Japan? And where is your country?" His keen insight, which completely transcended traditional understanding, greatly astonished Ougantino, leading him to conclude that Nobunaga was not an ordinary Japanese lord, but a genius
Enryaku-ji resolutely rejected Nobunaga's request—this laid the groundwork for the burning of Mount Hiei the following year
The Lord in the Eyes of the Nobility
The Ikko-Ikki was initially composed mainly of monks from the Jodo Shinshu sect and farmers. These devout believers scorned the feudal hierarchy, refused to pay annual tributes, and rejected corvée labor, organizing themselves to establish their envisioned religious kingdom in certain regions (notably, Kaga Province in the Hokuriku region was completely occupied by the Ikko-Ikki for ninety consecutive years, referred to as the "Country Belonging to the People"). After the suppression failed, many nearby feudal lords changed their strategies, attempting to utilize the power of the Ikko-Ikki, and thus joined the Honganji sect. The Ikko-Ikki and the local uprisings often became intertwined and indistinguishable. In the recent attack on Ogime Castle by the Ikko-Ikki, there were monks from the Gansho-ji temple, commoners from Nagashima, as well as local people from the vicinity.
They overlooked Nobunaga's fondness for the play "Dunsuke" and for exotic items. We have already mentioned "Dunsuke" earlier, and as for his preference for foreign goods, it is quite natural for someone like Nobunaga, who enjoyed novelty. It is said that in the eighth year of Tenshō (1580), Nobunaga encountered a patterned globe at the hands of the missionary Ogantino. "What is this?" Nobunaga asked curiously. Ogantino replied, "This is a globe. In fact, the land we inhabit is not a flat surface, but a sphere..."
This agreement caused significant harm to the Asai clan, yet the Asakura army, eager to secure a route back to their homeland and driven by their own interests, forced Asai Nagamasa to concede and compromise—this time, Asai Nagamasa was truly betrayed by the Asakura family
Nobunaga, as a genius, was not constrained by tradition; therefore, he initially adopted a suppressive attitude towards the Buddhist forces that influenced nearly all aspects of political and economic life in Japan. It is said that after the Battle of Anegawa, Nobunaga returned to Gifu and, merely a month later, on August 20, he launched another military campaign westward. The targets of this offensive were the castles of Noda and Fukushima (both located in present-day Osaka), which had been constructed by the "Mitsuhide Trio" and Saito Dosan with the covert support of the Honganji, Asai, and Asakura factions as they invaded the province of Settsu.
For this reason, Nobunaga found it easier to be tolerant of, and even accept, foreign religions such as Catholicism compared to the devout Japanese who adhered firmly to Buddhism or Shinto. Moreover, he inherently had a fondness for novel things, and he was very interested in the curly-haired, high-nosed Southern barbarians, as the earliest Europeans to arrive in Japan were the Portuguese and Spaniards, followed by the British and Dutch, who all traveled to Japan via Southeast Asia. Consequently, the Japanese mistakenly believed that their countries were also located in the south, referring to them as 'Southern barbarian countries' and calling these Western Europeans 'Southern barbarians.'
On the 26th, Nobunaga set up his main camp at Tennoji and commanded his army to besiege the cities of Noda and Fukushima. Although the enemy generals, including Hosokawa Akimoto, Miyoshi Nagayoshi, Saito Dosan, and Nagai Michitomo, gathered troops claiming to number 8,000, they were mostly a disorganized rabble, cowering within the walls and unwilling to engage in battle. Among the defenders, Kōsai Yoshikiyo and Miyoshi Masakatsu had long been in secret communication with Nobunaga, and after their conspiracy was exposed, they fled the city on the 28th to pay their respects to Nobunaga at Tennoji. This incident further dampened the morale of the defending troops, forcing them to request negotiations. However, Nobunaga hoped that this battle would fundamentally resolve the issue of the remaining Miyoshi loyalists, and thus he refused to comply.
Oda Nobunaga's supporters claimed that the monks of Enryaku-ji, cloaked in the guise of religion, engaged in rampant misconduct, indulging in beautiful women and young boys, and consuming wine and meat, which fundamentally contradicted the teachings of Buddhism, especially those of the Tendai sect. They argued that it was insufficient to quell the public outrage without taking action. However, the situation was not that simple. For centuries, the influence of Buddhism had permeated every corner of Japanese social and political life. In particular, the large temples in the Kinai region often possessed vast estates and maintained warrior monks, directly affecting and interfering with national politics. Without eradicating these decayed conservative forces and thoroughly separating politics from religion, it was impossible to establish a new order of governance. This was the true intention behind Nobunaga's campaign against Mount Hiei.
Yamashina Yoshitake maintained a close relationship with the Oda clan of Katsu-hana even before Nobunaga's birth. In the second year of Tenbun (1533), which was the year before Nobunaga was born, in July, Yamashina Yoshitake and the court noble Asuka no Masatsuna were invited to Owari to teach the local people the arts of waka poetry and kemari (a form of ball game), receiving warm hospitality from Oda Nobuhide—at that time, Yoshitake was twenty-five years old
In order to rescue the remnants of the Sanhao faction and the Hongan-ji Temple in Shishan, the allied forces of Azai and Asakura launched another major offensive southward on September 16, penetrating into Sakamoto. This perilous situation was something Nobunaga had not anticipated. The Oda general Mori Yoshinari, stationed at Usayama Castle, immediately led his troops to engage the enemy. Although he achieved a small victory in a skirmish, he was subsequently surrounded and cut off by the enemy the following day, ultimately meeting a heroic death.
Certainly, this "decision to be made later" is merely a blank check. Nobunaga can elevate the court and ensure that the nobles live without worry, yet he will not allow them to reclaim vast estates. However, when faced with the military family's petitions, figures like Kōshūji Haritoyo often tremble in fear of Nobunaga's might, sweating profusely and unable to act. In contrast, Yamashina Kiyoshi seems to have a much easier time, as Nobunaga appears to regard him entirely as a senior figure to be cared for.
However, according to archaeological findings in recent years, most of the buildings of Enryaku-ji had already been largely destroyed before this year, and not many traces of fire have been discovered. At the same time, some researchers in the field of historical literature have also presented similar circumstantial evidence. For instance, in the diary of the court noble Yoshiaki Yamashina, titled "Yamashina no Kiyo," although it records the events of Nobunaga's campaign against Mount Hiei, resulting in the deaths of thousands, there is no mention of setting fire to the temple. The authenticity of this matter remains a historical mystery.
Having secured the promise of the decay of the wooden original framework, Nobunaga immediately led a large army to the Nakashima fortress in Omi Province, attempting to completely quell the peasant uprisings and the Ikko-Ikki forces in the southern region. After fierce battles, the Oda army finally captured the important stronghold of Shimura Castle, ensuring the passage to and from the vicinity of Mount Hiei.
In the "History of Japan," Nobunaga is described as follows: "He was extremely warlike, having received professional military training, and had a very irritable temperament. However, he was also filled with a sense of justice and occasionally revealed a compassionate and peaceful side. He never altered his attitude based on the social status of others and often engaged in pleasant conversations with the lowly. He valued reputation, was very astute, and frequently concealed his true intentions. Nobunaga, who preferred to act independently, scorned all traditional rules and seldom heeded the advice of his subordinates, which earned him their deep respect. He rarely drank alcohol, looked down upon the nobility of all Japan, and when conversing with other lords, he tended to adopt a condescending attitude, as if addressing his own subordinates.
However, Oda Nobunaga was different; he sought to use military force to pacify the chaotic times and establish a new ruling regime distinct from the Muromachi shogunate. Nobunaga's sharp intellect and clear sense of right and wrong are vividly and thoroughly described in two other important historical documents—"The Record of Nobunaga" and "The History of Japan," in addition to "The Chronicles of Nobunaga." These three historical sources provide a comprehensive portrayal of Oda Nobunaga from three distinctly different perspectives: that of the samurai, the court nobles, and the missionaries.
As the Genshō-ji of Hongwan-ji, it quickly became an important stronghold for the Jōdo Shinshū sect in the Tōkaidō region. It is said that this Nagashima area originally belonged to the Ise Province and was governed by the Ito clan, with its ruling center located not far south of Genshō-ji at Nagashima Castle. The Nagashima region is crisscrossed by rivers and canals, with several small islands emerging in the water, referred to as "Rin-chū." Both Nagashima Castle and Genshō-ji are situated on the same "Rin-chū." It is difficult for two tigers to coexist on the same mountain; thus, Genshō-ji, unwilling to peacefully propagate its teachings, continuously vied with the Ito clan for control over the local populace, leading to years of conflict.
Throughout his life, Nobunaga contributed an immeasurable amount of money and treasures to the court. However, when the court requested the restoration of the "Imperial lands" that had been forcibly taken by the samurai, such as the territory of Nishio's Hōbō Temple and the land of Shin'yashō in Tanba Province, Nobunaga resolutely refused to make any concessions. When Yanatsugi personally visited Gifu Castle to meet Nobunaga regarding this matter, Nobunaga politely declined his request but simultaneously gifted Yanatsugi twenty kan of money, reassuring him with kind words: "The matter can still be discussed; let us make a decision when I go to the capital next spring."
First Battle of Long Island
In this battle, the Oda side suffered significant losses, with the general Sakai Masanobu killed in action. Surrounded by enemies, Nobunaga had no choice but to once again bring forth the figure of Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the Muromachi shogun, as a means of support. Although Yoshiaki was reluctant, he found himself within Nobunaga's sphere of influence and had to comply. Thus, on November 28, under the mediation of Ashikaga Yoshiaki and the court noble Nijo Haruyoshi, both sides began peace negotiations, ultimately deciding to cease hostilities and withdraw troops. Two-thirds of the territory in the northern region was assigned to the Oda clan, while one-third was allocated to the Asai clan, with Enryaku-ji retaining its former holdings
When Nobunaga retreated at Kanazaki, he was forced to change his route to the west bank of Lake Biwa because the Azai army had blocked the eastern shore. He intended to return to Kyoto via the Kutsuki Valley. However, when he approached Kutsuki Castle late that night, he found the castle gates tightly shut, with no sign of being allowed passage. At that time, the situation in Gōshū was unclear, and it was unreasonable for Kutsuki Motoyasu to openly display his banner and side with Nobunaga.
The Burning of Mount Hiei
Thus, the negotiations have collapsed, and both parties have officially engaged in confrontation
Although Nobunaga did not achieve victory through military actions, he subsequently gained legitimate control over a large territory in the northern region through clever political and diplomatic means. This left Asai Nagamasa in a predicament, constantly harassed and besieged by the nearby Oda forces, struggling to cope with the situation.
The author of "A History of Japan," Luis Frois, was a priest of the Catholic Jesuit order. Catholicism was first introduced to Japan in the year 1549, during the sixteenth year of Nobunaga Oda's life, and it quickly grew to encompass hundreds of thousands of followers. When Nobunaga Oda entered Kyoto, Frois was residing there, engaging in missionary activities. He documented the profound impression left on the local residents by the strict military discipline of Nobunaga's forces, and he recorded the following incident:
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Oda Nobunaga maintained a high level of vigilance against the nearby power of the Hongan-ji Temple. However, the Hongan-ji was not without support; behind it stood the Ishiyama Hongan-ji and a vast and numerous network of Ikko sect followers across various regions. Therefore, although he unified Owari and annexed Ise, he did not dare to take action against Nagashima. When leading his troops to Kyoto, Nobunaga appointed his younger brother, Oda Nobukiyo, as the lord of Komaki Castle in Owari Province (present-day Yatomi City, Aichi Prefecture) to monitor the movements of the Ikko sect followers in Nagashima.
Moreover, it is said that when Asai Nagamasa raised his banner, he secretly dispatched envoys to Nijo Castle in Kyoto to inform Ashikaga Yoshiaki. Upon hearing this, Yoshiaki was overjoyed, exclaiming, "Now, that detestable Nobunaga is surely doomed!" He then secretly ordered the local lords under his command to prepare to attack Nobunaga's defeated forces, and it is likely that Kuki Motoyasu also received this directive.
As an external religion, in order to successfully propagate its teachings, it is essential to establish good relations with the local power holders. After the missionaries entered the Kinai region, their first priority was to greet the provincial governor, Mino Yoshitake, as well as the major Buddhist temple, Hieizan Enryaku-ji. Only after obtaining the consent of these two could they preach to the nobles, samurai, and common people, and establish Catholic churches. Now that the rulers of Kinai have changed to Oda Nobunaga, the missionaries naturally had to pay their respects, and in this context, Frois met Nobunaga.
In the deep night of September 13, the warning bell of Hongan-ji Temple suddenly rang, shattering the silence of the long night. After Nobunaga understood the true intentions of Master Shōnyo, he decided to take the initiative to prevent reinforcements from the cities of Noda and Fukushima, and launched a fierce attack on this religious sanctuary. The Oda army deployed large cannons (large-caliber firearms) to bombard Hongan-ji, while Master Shōnyo dispatched families skilled in the use of firearms from Kii Province, such as Negai, Saiga, and Yuwatari, to engage in a fierce exchange of fire with hundreds and thousands of guns. In an instant, the air was filled with smoke, shaking the heavens and the earth.
After pacifying the rebellion in Jiangnan, Enryaku-ji had become a turtle in a jar. Therefore, Oda Nobunaga personally led his army to the foot of the mountain, intending to fulfill the promise he made the previous year to level this sacred religious mountain to the ground. His retainers, Sakuma Nobumori and Takei Yūan, expressed their objections, and were immediately met with Nobunaga's furious reprimand
In both "A History of Japan" and "Chronicles of the Kingdom of Japan," Nobunaga's hobbies are listed as follows: "He enjoyed fine tea utensils, excellent horses, and good swords; he liked falconry; he enjoyed watching the naked sumo wrestlers..."
Mount Hiei's Enryaku-ji Temple was viewed as a thorn in the side of Oda Nobunaga after it refused to submit to him last year. This sentiment was particularly intensified following the confrontation with the followers of Hongan-ji. Nobunaga's hatred for the separatist forces cloaked in religious garb grew even stronger. On New Year's Day of this year, during a New Year audience with his generals at Gifu Castle, he explicitly stated: "This year's primary objective is to attack Mount Hiei"
After Lianchun, individuals such as Shihui, Zhenghui, and Zhengyi successively became the abbot of the Yuanzheng Temple. Through the tireless efforts of these four generations over more than seventy years, they finally expelled the influence of the Ito family. Moreover, all the local lords, big and small, either voluntarily or under duress, became followers of the Ikkō sect, transforming the Nagashima region into a religious independent kingdom
In the description by Yamaguchi, Nobunaga is portrayed as a very amiable person, with a sincere and urgent desire to "respect the emperor." Although he is well aware that Nobunaga intends to use the court to counterbalance the Ashikaga shogunate, he naturally does not mention this in his diary. In September of that year, the court planned to hold the thirteenth memorial service for the late emperor, Emperor Nara, and requested donations from the feudal lords. Despite being sixty-one years old, Yamaguchi went to Mikawa to pay a visit to Tokugawa Ieyasu. When passing by Takafu Castle, he received a warm welcome from Nobunaga, who promised, "If the amount donated by the Tokugawa clan does not meet your expectations, I will contribute an additional two hundred kan for you to take back to Kyoto." A formal document was even drawn up for this purpose.
The Beginning of the Shishan War
Originally, Japan did not have any indigenous religion. Around the sixth century, Buddhism was introduced to Japan, quickly taking root and growing into a flourishing tree. Subsequently, the Japanese nobility, in order to protect local culture, created Shinto. However, for a considerable period, Shinto lacked a complete system and was merely a belief rather than a fully-fledged religion. Moreover, Japanese Buddhism and Shinto beliefs gradually merged, becoming intertwined to the point where it is difficult to distinguish between them.
In the year when Nobunaga ascended to power, he granted the request of the missionaries to allocate a piece of land in Shijo, Kyoto, for the construction of a church, naming it "Eiraku-ji." The monks of Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei were greatly incensed upon hearing this news, and thus filed a lawsuit with the court, stating: "To name a temple after an era is an unparalleled honor; only our Enryaku-ji in all of Japan is qualified to receive such an honor. How dare the barbarian heretics compare themselves to Enryaku-ji, which protects Japan?" Nobunaga, left with no choice, had to rename Eiraku-ji to Nanban-ji.
The lord of the region, Motokazu of the Kōboku clan, is renowned in the Ōmi province, known by all and sundry. He was originally a local lord from the Kōboku Valley on the western side of Lake Biwa, initially serving the Rokkaku clan. Later, when Asai Nagamasa allied with the Asakura army to attack Rokkaku Yoshiharu, he shifted his allegiance to the Asakura clan. When Nobunaga ascended to the capital and sent letters far and wide, Motokazu expressed his willingness to support General Ashikaga Yoshihide, thus nominally becoming a vassal of Yoshihide.
Yan Jichang had been tirelessly working for the financial revival of the court for many years. His main tasks were twofold: first, to solicit donations from various regional lords; second, to request these lords to restore the court's "Imperial Lands," which had been usurped. In most cases, his efforts would come to naught, either due to wars or being met with indifference, with only a few warlords like Oda Nobuhide treating him with respect. Based on this relationship, after Oda Nobunaga ascended to Kyoto, the court appointed Yamashina Yanji, who was then serving as the Acting Middle Counselor, to take on the role of "Buke Tansō," responsible for liaising and negotiating with Oda Nobunaga.
"The Record of Yan Jiqing" is a diary-style work authored by Yamashina Yanqie, who had the closest relationship with the court noble Oda Nobunaga.